Clay Materials:

One of the earliest earth components to be utilized therapeutically in ancient medicine was clay minerals. Native Americans have been using clay minerals for healing and protection for thousands of years. The primary cause of clay minerals' ability to exchange ions is the fact that they are typically positively or negatively charged. An anion in the interlayer gap makes up layered double hydroxides (LDHs), commonly referred to as "anionic clays," which make up for the brucite-like layers' negative charge shortfall.¹⁴Ancient societies have long since handed down the healing powers of clay minerals, which are still used today to cure a variety of interior and external illnesses. Studies have also examined the benefits of employing clay minerals in a range of industries in light of recently developed modern technologies For many biological applications, such as pharmaceutics, veterinary medicine, biomaterials, biosensors, and cosmetics, clay minerals are perfect. Its exceptional physicochemical characteristics include strong surface reactivity (adsorption and cation exchange capacity), high water dispersibility, ideal rheological behavior, colloidal and swelling capacity, and so forth.¹⁵

The study covers the use of cationic clay minerals, either naturally occurring or produced, or their composites, in drugs, cosmetics, biomaterials, biosensors, and other medical devices.

Titanium:

In the earth's crust, titanium is the ninth most common element, after silicon, oxygen, aluminum, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium. Titanite, leucoxene (altered ilmenite), perovskite (CaTiO2), anatase (TiO2), arizonite (Fe2TiO5), rutile (TiO2), and ilmenite (FeTiO2) are the most frequent minerals containing titanium. Of them, only rutile, leucoxene, and ilmenite have significant commercial value. The aerospace industry uses about 65% of titanium, with the remaining 35% going to armor, cars, consumers, industries, medical, and other uses.¹⁶ Numerous studies have reported on the utilization of titania nanotubes in energy and fuel applications.^19-23 Sujata and Jack reported on the use of nanoparticles of titanium dioxide as a disinfectant for the environment.¹⁷

Titanium-based materials are naturally chosen for use in implants due to a combination of their remarkable qualities, which include high strength, low density, great corrosion resistance, better biocompatibility, low modulus, and excellent ability to integrate with various tissues, including bone. In dentistry, there is a lot of interest in titanium and its alloys.¹⁸ Since commercially pure titanium has superior qualities to Ag-Pd-Au-Cu alloy and palladium is becoming more and more expensive, it is the material of choice for dental implants. Other dental titanium alloys that have been reported as representative include Ti-6Al-7Nb, Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-13Cu-4.5Ni, and so on.¹⁹ The diminutive When it comes to hard tissue replacement, titanium and its alloys have an advantage over other implant materials due to their Young's modulus, which can result in less stress shielding and quicker bone healing. Titanium and its alloys are widely employed in dental implants, artificial limbs, and cardiovascular implants. The investigation looked at the corrosion behavior of titanium (Ti) that was uncoated and coated with hydroxyapatite (HA) in simulated biological fluid.²⁰

Silica:

The most prevalent substance in silicate minerals that are present in the Earth's crust is silica, sometimes referred to as silicon dioxide (SiO2).²¹ The production of silica nanoparticles, or SiNPs, has grown significantly, making them the second most produced nanomaterial in the world. Natural silica is found in a wide variety of minerals, including both cemented and unconsolidated rock and sand. It was recently reported by Barros et al. that high purity silica may be extracted from Amazonian sponges. The extraction of nanosilica from rice husk was reported by Ghosh and Bhattacherjee.²²The most important component of all glass manufacturing is silica sand. The applications of silica in chemical products have expanded to include photovoltaic, catalysis, food processing, soap and cleaning industries, and more. Complementary uses for silica include inks and coatings, materials for controlled release (fragrances and oils, active medicinal ingredients, biocides), and catalysis for fine and specialty chemicals. Rubber-based reinforcement insertion.²³Additionally, elemental silicon finds a wide range of uses in many forms, including photocatalysis, energy and electronic fields, nanowires for photovoltaics and light emitting devices, and more.²⁴

Due to their many advantages, including high particular area, large amount of pores, adjustable pore topologies, and the stability of physical processes, silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have been thoroughly examined as a possible medication delivery method. Earlier MSNs were employed to deliver different hydrophilic or hydrophobic active chemicals under regulated conditions. Subsequent developments in MSN surface characteristics, such as PEGylation and surface functionalization, made them a viable drug delivery method for the treatment of cancer.²⁵ described the use of supercritical carbon dioxide to encapsulate water-insoluble medications in mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Applications for targeted distribution systems of Silica-Gold Core Shell Structured Nanoparticles are one of the uses of silica in biomedicine.According to, magnetite nanocubes can be functionalized with a consistent silica shell for a variety of biosensing applications by an easy and novel way for synthesising Fe3O4/SiO2 core/shell nanocubes. In order to move silica materials into the commercial application space and make them FDA-compliant for clinical trials, Nivorozhkin examined the advancements made in the use of silica materials in drug delivery applications.²⁶ Salama et al. created zeolite Y in the sodium form (NaY), an antibacterial agent for preventing infections connected to implants, by synthesizing amorphous silica ash from leftover rice husks. In Wu's work, he examined the use of silicon as a three-dimensional biosensor and the use of SiO2 nanostructured materials to the local delivery of the anticancer medication methotrexate.²⁷Abou Aitah et al. reported on the pH-controlled release of curcumin via functionalized dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles.In order to investigate the cellular absorption of silica nanoparticles. Hsiao and colleagues synthesized core-shell fluorescently tagged SiO2 NP with diameters of 15, 60, and 200nm. They then investigated the cytotoxicity of these particles in NRK-52E kidney cells, THP-1 derived macrophages, A549 epithelial cells, and HaCaT keratinocytes.²⁸

Calcium Phosphate:

The ability of calcium phosphate (CaP) biomaterials to establish intimate, useful ties with neighboring bone makes them particularly interesting. Some of the CaPs that are often utilized are hydroxyapatite (HA), α- and β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP), amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP), and calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (HA).²⁹ For covering metallic implants or as fillers in bone voids, CaP biomaterials are frequently utilized in orthopedic and dental surgery. CaP is used for a variety of purposes, including the delivery of proteins, oligonucleotides, and small molecules as well as the regeneration of hard tissue. Additionally, CaP exhibits potential as a vaccine adjuvant, as studies have demonstrated that nanoscale formulations are more effective than micrometer-sized particles in focusing on lymph node dendritic cells to boost immunity.³⁰ Calcium phosphate cement (CPC), a synthetic substance used for bone grafting, is another calcium phosphate biomaterial that self-sets. In 1996, CPC received FDA permission to correct anomalies in the craniofacial structure. In the presence of an aqueous solution, CPC can self-harden and produce HA in situ as a paste. Furthermore, CPC is biocompatible and injectable, enabling minimally invasive operations.³¹

Unosson and Engqvist reported how to create resorbable, load-bearing calcium phosphate cement.³² With certain physical properties in mind, bioceramics based on calcium phosphate and α-alumina were created with the intention of employing them as dental implants.The tetracalcium phosphate bioceramics created by Kumar et al. can significantly enhance the material and biological properties of self-setting bone cement. The source of these bioceramics is egg shells.³³ Jonas et al. examined the mechanics underlying the setting of acidic premixed calcium phosphate cement. Toyama et al. converted amorphous calcium phosphate into sulfate-ion-substituted hydroxyapatite. The impact of acetabular size, bone quality, cement mantle thickness, and body mass index on tensile stress in bone cement after total hip replacement was investigated by Lamvohee et al.³⁴For dentin tubule closure, Kato et al. created a very thin, amorphous calcium phosphate freestanding sheet. As a biomaterial for front bone regeneration, Padilla et al. created Novel Nanostructured Zn-substituted Monetite. The biodegradable co-polymer poly(glycolide)-poly (ethylene glycol) (PGA-PEG) was created to coat nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) in order to address conditions associated with low bone density. When compared to pure HAp, CNT-reinforced hydroxyapatite demonstrated better fracture toughness, indicating that it is a suitable material for application in bone tissue engineering.³⁵ TiO2 was used to alter biocompatible HA, Mwcnts, and BSA so they could be used as bone replacement materials. Li and associates looked at how hydroxyapatite surface roughness affected rat osteosarcoma cell adherence and growth.³⁶

Calcium Carbonate:

Across the globe, calcium carbonate, or CaCO3, comprises almost 4% of the earth's crust. There are several industries that employ calcium carbonate to create various items. Particulate calcium carbonate (PCC) and ground calcium carbonate (GCC) are the two forms of calcium carbonate that are readily available. While GCC is usually 10 micrometers in size, PCC is typically one hundredth of a nanometer in size.³⁷ It is employed in a number of industries, either directly or indirectly. Calcium is used directly in the cement, ceramics, sugar, and building materials sectors. On the other hand, calcium carbonate needs to be treated early in order to be used as PCC in the food, medicine, and cosmetic industries. In 2011, the globe utilized about 14 mega-tons of precipitated material The skin, mucous membranes, nose, and eyes can all become physically irritated by calcium carbonate dust. Whereas skin contact results in localized irritation, calcium carbonate dust contact to the eyes causes redness, discomfort, and inflammation of the eyelids.³⁸ Significant dust exposure results in sneezing, coughing, and nasal irritation. Most antacids contain calcium carbonate, which is also consumed as a nutritional supplement. Abdominal discomfort, bone pain, coma, disorientation, constipation, depression, diarrhea, headache, irregular heartbeat, twitching muscles, nausea, and vomiting can all result from taking too much calcium carbonate. Calcium-based antacid tablets and drinks frequently contain precipitated calcium carbonate, an efficient acid neutralizer. Precipitated calcium carbonate's high calcium concentration makes it possible to formulate multivitamin/mineral tablets and high dosage calcium supplements.³⁹ Because of the tiny particle sizes and distinctive particle shapes, calcium-fortified foods and drinks taste good. Calcium carbonate has long been used in cosmetic and cosmetics products. According to recent studies, the manufacturing of toothpaste is where PCC is used to its greatest extent. As a hygiene product, toothpaste needs to be used on a daily basis. The mineral calcium is vital to human health and is required for many bodily processes. The majority of nutrients in the human body are absorbed through the absorption of calcium from food; however, absorption is reduced in cases where there is limited absorption or when the body contains phytates and oxalates. Therefore, supplements are utilized to counteract the body's declining nutritional levels. Chitosan is utilized as an assembling material, CaCO3 nanoparticles as a carrier, and folic.⁴⁰

Zinc Oxide:

Since zinc oxide (ZnO) films have excellent chemical and mechanical stability, low toxicity, biodegradability, high electrical (piezoelectric constant), and optical (band gap), they have become important in technology.⁴¹This metal oxide finds several applications in fields like as surface acoustic wave devices, spin functional devices, gas sensors, transparent electronics, and astringent for UV light emitters. In human medicine, it is also included to treatments for hemorrhoids, eczema, and excoriation.Additionally, they are being researched for possible uses as anticancer medications, fungicides in agriculture, and imaging in biological applications such biosensors for glucose, phenol H2O2, urea, and cholesterol, among others.⁴²

Recently, Raguvaran et al. looked at the potential and challenges facing the veterinary sciences while using ZnO nanoparticles. Guano et al. and Wallace et al., respectively, reported synthesis of ZnO nanowire and regulated-size and shaped zinc oxide crystals. Nanocrystalline zinc oxide thin films were created by Bhasha et al. to be used as ethanol vapour sensors. Mugwang et al. synthesized thin films of zinc oxide (AzO) doped with aluminum for solar cell applications.⁴³ Hahm studied how zinc oxide nanoparticles may be used to detect biological fluorescence. According to Ben-Slama et al., male rats subjected to sub-acute oral toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles. According to the author, mice that are orally exposed to low concentrations of ZnO-NPs experience modest signs of poisoning, but their behavior is not significantly affected. The effects of nano-zinc oxide on the physical characteristics and nutritional value of spinach leaves were studied by Kisan et al. It has been demonstrated that biofortifying spinach leaves with nano-zinc oxide (1000 ppm) can enhance their protein and dietary fiber content.⁴⁴

Aside from the particle mentioned before, there are several metallic nanoparticles available, each with a wide range of applications. In contrast to alternative nanomaterials, silver nanoparticle applications have achieved the highest degree of commercialization. Applications for silver nanoparticles include DNA sequencing, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, magnetic and optical polarizability, catalysis, electrical conductivity, and antibacterial agent.⁴⁵ Application areas for copper and copper oxide nanoparticles include catalytic, electrical, optical, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antidiabetic activity. Owing to their exceptional biological and chemopreventive properties, novel selenium nanoparticles, or SeNPs, are garnering more and more interest as possible therapeutic carriers.Gold nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in clinical chemistry, genomics, biosensors, immunoassay, detection, and photothermolysis because of their biocompatibility and ease of manufacture.⁴⁶

Bioglass:

Hench et al. (1969) classified certain silicate-based glass compositions as "bioactive" due to their ability to chemically adhere to rat bone. The original bioglass (BG) was made up of a silicate network (45 weight percent SiO2) plus additions of 6 weight percent P2O5, 24.5 weight percent Na2O, and 24.5 weight percent CaO. Over time, bioactive glass compositions without sodium or including fluorine, magnesium, strontium, iron, silver, boron, potassium, or zinc have been developed.⁴⁷Bioactive Glass S53P4 was used in Upper Extremity Reconstructive Surgery Lindfors, where it was shown to remodel bones and have antimicrobial, vascularization, and cartilage-healing properties.Through the use of the sol-gel technique, Tripathi et al. created bioactive glass including SiO2-Na2O-CaO-P2O5-MgO. Via many immersions in stimulated biological fluid (SBF), the bioactivity of the glass was investigated. X-ray reflectometry (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and FTIR spectroscopy were used to determine the synthesis of the hydroxyl carbonate apatite (HCA) layer. This showed that in all of the evaluated bioglass samples, HCA was the phase that predominated.⁴⁸ The fabrication of bioactive sol-gel coatings was described by Rendón et al. and they were applied utilizing a pneumatic spray over stainless steel AISI 316L. After the coatings were immersed in SBF for seven and forty days, potentiodynamic curves were used to examine the coatings' resistance to corrosion. Because of the fast osteointegration made possible by the SiO and CaO content of wollastonite strewn throughout the sol matrix, which is compatible with the physiological milieu, the apatite layer forms swiftly. Its rapid bioactive reaction allows for a strong implant bond fixation. The antibacterial efficacy of a newly developed formulation that included both red and green propolis was assessed by Vasconcelos et al. The antibacterial activity of the bioglass loaded with propolis was not diminished. The findings indicate that more research should be done on propolis in this sustained release formulation as a potential alternative treatment for oral cavity infections.⁴⁷ The study conducted by Sarkar and Lee revealed the in vitro biocompatibility of bioglass that was manufactured by a hydrothermal chemical method and exposed to microwave light.Haach and colleagues synthesized PMMA+HA and PMMA+45S5 scaffolds and conducted an in vivo test to assess their mechanical characteristics. Histological examination and mechanical characteristics indicate that both materials can be used to replace modest amounts of bone. By using a freeze-drying method, It was possible to manufacture chitosan-based bioactive glass (BG-CH), which has 17 weight percent chitosan. BG-CH was implanted in the muscles and femoral condyles of rats that undergone ovariectomies. Tissue samples were meticulously extracted for both histological and physico-chemical examinations.⁴⁸ The antiosteoporotic property of BG-CH, according to the results, makes it a valuable substance for halting bone loss brought on by postmenopausal osteoporosis.⁴⁷

Mabrouk et al. generated Nanobioactive Quaternary Glass System 46S6, which featured particles ranging in size from 40 to 60 nm and a shorter gelation duration, by altering the sol-gel process and heating it to 600°C. When compared to melting bioglass, the sol-gel produced glass demonstrated in vitro biocompatibility more quickly. The developed bioactive glass was confirmed to be effective as a bone replacement material by the cell viability assay. Composite molds containing citrodoxacin were created by lyophilization using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and/or quaternary bioactive glass (46S6 system). By employing FTIR, XRD, and SEM, the porosity of the sample was evaluated. The delayed drug release assay and biodegradation rate of the scavenger point to both a new therapy for osteomylitis and a local antibacterial effect.⁴⁹ By using the fusing approach, bioactive glasses containing trace amounts of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were created. Cu and Zn have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal qualities, which provide them intriguing roles in biological metabolism. The substance demonstrated in vivo biocompatibility and was non-cytotoxic to both osteoblast and endothelial cells, as demonstrated by the hydroxyapatite formation. When treating orthopedic or maxillofacial disorders, these biomaterials offer an alternative to surgery. Lao et al. investigated strontium ion bioavailability from bioactive glasses in vivo. The effects of bioactive glass S53P4 or beta tricalcium phosphate on the osteogenic.⁵⁰ development of human adipose stem cells after incubation with bone morphogenic protein 2 (BMP-2) protein were investigated in vivo by Waselau et al.⁷⁵ Hannickel and Prado created a highly crystalline and resorbable hydroxyapatite composite (HAP) using alpha or beta tricalcium phosphate, or Ca3(PO4)2. Using XRD, FTIR, SEM, density, and compressive strength experiments, Himanshu et al. assessed the contribution of TiO2+ZrO2 to the 45S5 bioactive glass system for enhancing the mechanical, physical, and other properties, including the bioactivity. Sampath investigated the structural, magnetic, and in vitro bioactivity of the Co-Cu ferrite and bioglass composite for bone tissue engineering heating. Amiri investigated the implantation of nanobioglass scaffolds augmented by mesenchymal stem cells in rat calvaria.⁴⁷

Zeolites:

Tetrahedral SiO44- and AlO54-atoms arranged in three-dimensional frameworks and joined by a common oxygen atom constitute the building blocks of hydrated, crystalline aluminosilicates known as zeolites, which are composed of alkali and alkaline earth cations.These are crystalline nanoporous inorganic materials known as micropores (0.5-2 nm) because of their well-defined, interconnecting channels or cavities in the nanometer or sub-nanometer length scale.⁵¹ Among the most significant inorganic cation exchangers are zeolites. Because of its negative charge, the aluminosilicate structure draws cations to settle inside its pores and channels. big voids, or cages, exist inside the structures of zeolites, which may hold big cations like Na+, K+, Br+, and Ca2+ as well as relatively large molecules and cationic groups including carbonate ions, nitrate ions, water, and ammonia. Zeolite is used in industrial, veterinary medicine, agriculture, sanitation, and environmental protection as adsorbents, ion exchangers, and catalysts.⁵¹ Zeolites have been used in human medicine for many purposes such as treating athlete's foot and wounds externally, eliminating ammonia ions from renal dialysates, and treating diarrhea. Guo and colleagues enhanced the photocatalytic efficiency and selectivity by enclosing semiconductor oxides within the Zeolite framework, thereby photoactivating it.⁵²

Zeolite is used in biomedical applications due to its features, which include immunomodulatory action, capacity to imitate metalloenzymes, selectivity in size and shape, long-term chemical and biological stability, and capacity to reversibly bind tiny molecules. Natural zeolite, or finely ground clinoptilolite, has been used as a possible adjuvant in anticancer therapy, according to Pavelic et al. study. Zeolite was used as a biomaterial in vitro on Swiss Albino fibroblast culture cells, two cell types of chronic myelogenous leukemia, and Stimulated Biological Fluid (SBF), according to Ceyhan et al. Tavolaro et al. have found zeolite composite membranes and crystals as potentially useful drug delivery mechanisms in biomaterials.⁵³ Polyurethane nanofibers, strengthened by zeolite crystals, were created by the electrospinning method and demonstrated normal cell growth and development as well as an antibacterial effect against strains of bacteria. These nanocomposite materials' structures indicate promise for their possible use and worth in biomedical engineering.⁵¹Fly ash was utilized in Class "F" to create novel zeolite materials for advanced wastewater treatment, which included the removal of heavy metals (Cd2+, Cu2+, and Ni2+) from synthetic wastewaters that contained one, two, or three pollutants. Leggo assessed the characteristics and advantages of using a biofertilizer, or organo-zeolitic fertilizer, for the vegetation of contaminated soil and the growth of food crops.Clinoptilolite sorbent KLS-10-MA was prepared as a food additive and its potential to lower lead bioaccumulation was studied in lab-bred ICR line mice. The results show a notable improvement, indicating that it is a dependable technique for clearing animal and human organisms chronically contaminated with heavy metals, particularly lead.⁵⁴

Leggo reported using organo-zeolitic biofertilizer as a novel soil amendment technique to significantly increase plant growth potential on marginal and damaged soils. Abdullah examined how well the zeolite absorbed aluminum ions from tap water that was tainted. The impact of adding zeolites to fish diet on their chemical, metabolic, and histological properties. Rainbow fish were fed a standard diet plus one to four percent natural zeolite supplement.⁵⁵ In addition to measuring the fish's lipid fatty acid and amino acid content, pathomorphological and histological analyses of the internal organs and muscle tissues of rainbow trout were carried out. The study's findings demonstrated that zeolites had no unfavorable effects and instead had a beneficial effect on the makeup of chemicals, amino acids, and fatty acids. ZnO and ZnS were altered in the process of producing Zeolite Y in the sodium form (NaY), which was made from amorphous silica ash that was removed from leftover rice husks.⁵⁴ The bactericidal activity of ZnO/NaY, ZnS/NaY, and NaY were tested. Compared to other combinations, ZnS/NaY was shown to have superior antibacterial activity, indicating that it may be a useful antimicrobial agent for treating implant-related illnesses. Grohens used the lyophilization process to develop porous scaffolds made of gelatin, hyaluronic acid, and zeolite that might be used in wound healing applications. Measurements of particular blood biochemical and enzyme activities were made using aflatoxin and two adsorbents (Zeolite and Mycosorb) added to broiler chicken feed. The findings indicated that AF had reduced negative effects, which may assist with the poultry aflatoxinosis problem.⁵⁶

Magnetic Nanoparticles:

Reaction occurs when a substance is exposed to a magnetic field. Ferrimagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and diamagnetic are the five basic divisions. Nanoparticles (NPs) that react to a magnetic field are known as "magnetically induced nanoparticles" (MNPs). Information storage, biomedicine, catalysis, magnetic fluids, magnetic energy storage, and spintronics are a few of the many domains that are very interested in MNPs.⁵⁷ Based on whether they are utilized inside or outside of the body, magnetic nanoparticles employed in biomedical applications can be divided into two categories (in vivo, in vitro). For in vivo use, it can be further divided into therapeutic (drug targeting and hyperthermia) and diagnostic (nuclear magnetic resonance) applications. For in vitro applications, it is mostly used in diagnostic separation, selection, and magnetorelaxometry.⁵⁸ Candido et al. showed that polyphosphate magnetic nanoparticles for the treatment of oral cancer had a high efficacy in treating hyperthermia. According to Martirosyan, thermosensitive magnetic nanoparticles can be used to cure cancer by causing self-controlled hyperthermia. Israel et al. created theranostic magnetic nanoparticles through surface engineering mediated by ultrasound by employing mixed polymers to carry siRNA. Using magnetic microspheres, Hereba et al. looked at how some physicochemical properties of human blood were affected.⁵⁹

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Received on 09.01.2025 Revised on 03.02.2025

Accepted on 20.02.2025 Published on 14.04.2025

Available online from April 18, 2025

Asian J. Research Chem.2025; 18(2):95-103.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-4150.2025.00016

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.

INTRODUCTION: